Sources
Every word in the three dictionaries names where it came from. This is the full list of those sources, grouped by kind, with the number of entries each one supports and how far its pages have been checked.
Linguistic research is cited by author, year and page and read in the original wherever we have been able to obtain it. Press lists, community lists and reference sites are used only where nothing better exists, and are marked as such. Where a page has not yet been checked, the entry says so and so does this list. Counts were last updated on 2026-10-21. The method explains how sources are weighed, and the research page sets out the scholarship still to be read.
Greek
To Booko, the Greeklish dictionary · 433 entries
Linguistic research
Tamis, Anastasios M. (2011). Greek in contact with English in Australia. Études helléniques / Hellenic Studies 19 (1), pp. 177 to 202. Open
Alvanoudi, Angeliki (2017). Language contact, borrowing and code switching: a case study of Australian Greek. Journal of Greek Linguistics 18, pp. 3 to 44. Recordings made in Cairns in 2013. Open
Maniakas, Theodoros (1983). Sociolinguistic features of Modern Greek as it is spoken in Montreal. MA thesis, McGill University, Montreal. Appendix I, p. 77. Open
Ralli, Angela, Makri, Vasiliki and Mouchtouri, Vasiliki (2019). Examining the integration of borrowed nouns in immigrant speech: the case of Canadian Greek. Patras Working Papers in Linguistics 5, pp. 137 to 159. Revised as a chapter by Ralli and Makri, 2020. Open
Tamis, Anastasios M. (1986 to 1987). The changing structure of Modern Greek: the formation of an ethnolect. Glossologia 5 to 6, pp. 123 to 138. Word material on pp. 130 to 135. Full text checked against the original. Open
Karatsareas, Petros and Charalambidou, Anna (2020). Exploring linguistic hybridity and lexical creativity in the UK’s Greek Cypriot diaspora: the Grenglish Project. Cahiers du Centre d’Études Chypriotes 50, pp. 431 to 456. Community submissions collected in London, 2019 to 2022. Open
Matejka-Hanser, Lisa (2011). Greek American Greek: lexical borrowing in the speech of Greek Americans. Wiener Linguistische Gazette 75, pp. 84 to 99. Recordings made in Chicago, 2003 to 2009. Open
Tamis, Anastasios M. (2001). Η ελληνική εθνόλεκτος στην Αυστραλία. In Michalis Damanakis, Γλώσσα και μετανάστευση, Encyclopaedic Guide to the Greek Language, Centre for the Greek Language, Thessaloniki. Open
Kanarakis, George (2009). Perspectives on cross-linguistic transference: Greek and English in multicultural Australia. Études helléniques / Hellenic Studies 17 (1), pp. 19 to 35. Phrase material on pp. 27 to 28. Open
Historical record
Seferis, George (1977). Μέρες Δ΄, 1 Γενάρη 1941 to 31 Δεκέμβρη 1944. Athens: Ίκαρος. Diary entry of 16 February 1942, written in Pretoria. Reproduced by Nikos Sarantakos (26 September 2013), Μικρό γλωσσάρι της ελληνοτρανσβαλικής γλώσσας (1942), Οι λέξεις έχουν τη δική τους ιστορία. Open
The Greeklish Project
Gold, Kyriakos (2009 onwards). Words noted in Melbourne from community life and his media work, before the project took its formal shape. Open
The Greeklish Project (2014 onwards). Word collection gathered in Melbourne by Kyriakos Gold through the project, its public call for words and its events at the Greek Centre. Open
Press
Pronews and Newsbeast (2016). Greek news site lists of the words of the Greeks of America. Press lists, not independently checked against a primary source.
Espresso News, New York (2013). List of Greek American words. Press list, not independently checked against a primary source.
Davis, Simon (18 January 2016). 21 amusing Greek Americanisms English speakers might recognize. Mental Floss. Draws on P. David Seaman (1972), Modern Greek and American English in Contact, The Hague: Mouton. Open
Kalimniou, Dean (3 August 2015). The Greeklish Project. Neos Kosmos, Melbourne. Open
Harris, Mary (19 August 2016). To Booko: the Greek Australian dictionary of the Greeklish dialect. Greek Reporter. Open
Kalimniou, Dean (29 June 2020). Tongues of Greek Australia: an Anglicised Hellenic language. Neos Kosmos, Melbourne. Open
Φωτάκης, Νίκος (28 July 2015). Μια γιορτή για την ελληνοαυστραλιανή «κάλτσα». Νέος Κόσμος, Melbourne. Open
Kalimniou, Dean (12 January 2015). The year of speaking Greek dangerously. Neos Kosmos, Melbourne. Open
Reference
Wikipedia contributors. Greek in Australia. Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia. Table of English loanwords, consulted October 2026. Open
Community
Greek Boston. Community list of Greek American words. Not independently checked against a primary source.
Words carried over from the first To Booko lists in 2014 whose original printed source is still being traced. They stay in the dictionary while the editors check them.
Words sent in by visitors to To Booko and checked by the editors before publication. Each carries the name of the person who sent it.
Not yet consulted
Tamis, Anastasios M. (1986). The State of Modern Greek Language as Spoken in Victoria. PhD thesis, University of Melbourne. 461 pages. The founding study; its full word lists have not yet been examined for this dictionary.
Seaman, P. David (1972). Modern Greek and American English in Contact. The Hague: Mouton. The first full study of the Greek of America; quoted here through later writers.
Mencken, H. L. (1936). The American Language, 4th edition, appendix on non English dialects, with Greek American words supplied by S. S. Lontos of the New York newspaper Atlantis. A lead not yet worked through.
Italian
The Italglish dictionary, beta · 669 entries
Scholarship and reference works
Menarini, Alberto (1947). Ai margini della lingua. Firenze: Sansoni; list of 94 items as reprinted in Pedrotti, M. (2017), Appendix pp. 28 to 29. Open
Repetti, Lori (2009). Gemination in English loans in American varieties of Italian. In A. Calabrese and W. L. Wetzels (eds), Loan Phonology, 225 to 239. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Open
Repetti, Lori (c. 2006). The emergence of marked structures in the integration of loans in Italian. Author's PDF. Open
Rocchi, Lorenzo (2006). La lingua di chi è emigrato. Un'indagine tra la Sicilia e l'Inghilterra. Altreitalie 33 (luglio dicembre 2006): 129 to 156. Open
Prifti, Elton (2011). Italese und Americaliano: Sprachvariation bei italienischen Migranten in den USA. In Stehl (ed.), Sprachen in mobilisierten Kulturen, 71 to 106. Open
Hermann W. Haller, Between Standard Italian and Creole (1981) Open
Haller, Hermann W. (2011). Varieties, use, and attitudes of Italian in the U.S. In Stehl (ed.), Sprachen in mobilisierten Kulturen, 57 to 70. Potsdam. Open
Andrighetti, Italiese: It’s Not Just for Immigrants Anymore (2013), quoting Clivio online dictionary Open
Danesi, Canadian Italian: a Case in Point of How Language Adapts to Environment (1985) Open
Roda, E. (2024). L'italiano attraverso la stampa in Canada: il caso del Progresso Italo Canadese (1929 to 1932). Italiano LinguaDue 2: 288 to 298. Open
tgmag.ca article (author, date not given), Italo Canadian nativisation chart, as quoted on Wikizziunariu. Open
Mencken, H. L. (1921). The American Language, 2nd ed., appendix on Italian, as known from a search excerpt in the earlier catalogue.
H. L. Mencken, The American Language, Appendix 9 (citing Livingston/New York advertising) Open
Pascoli, Giovanni (1904). Italy, in Primi poemetti, with Pascoli's own notes; teaching edition, Università di Ferrara. Open
Auer, Peter. Italian in Toronto (children's speech, radio calls), as quoted on Wikizziunariu Discussioni: checca. Open
Clivio, Gianrenzo P. (1975), as quoted in Auer (Italian in Toronto), via Wikizziunariu Discussioni: checca. Open
Antonia Rubino, L’italiano in Australia tra lingua immigrata e lingua seconda (2014), in Varietà dei contesti di apprendimento linguistico Open
Pedrotti, M. (2017). Honors thesis, University of Dayton (Italian American language). Open
Unattributed glossary and Yahoo Answers post quoted on Wikizziunariu Discussioni: checca. Open
Bernini, Giuliano (2010). Emigrazione, italiano dell'. In Enciclopedia dell'Italiano. Roma: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana. Open
Danesi, Marcel (1985b), as quoted by Auer, via Wikizziunariu. Open
Danesi, Psycholinguistic and Sociolinguistic Patterns Related to the First Generation of Italian Immigrants in Toronto (1991) Open
L’Italo-Americano interview with Filomena Sorrentino (2016) Open
Haller / Livingston as described in later research Open
Rando, Gaetano (2004). Il teatro italoaustraliano. Altreitalie 28: 159 to 180. Open
Gaetano Rando, English loan-word and Standard Italian original in Australian Italian (1971) Open
Marcato, Carla (2010). Parole migranti nel lessico dell'alimentazione. Oltreoceano 4: 19 to 26. Open
De Giovanni, M. (1982), Central Adriatic returnee americanisms, as cited in Prifti 2011, fn. 56. Open
Rando (1968) or Bettoni (1987), as cited in secondary overview Open
Rando, Gaetano (1998). Pino Bosi and the Piccolo Mondo of the Italo Australian community. Altreitalie 18: 4 to 12. Open
Press, community and web sources
Wikipedia contributors. Italo-Australian dialect. Accessed 21 October 2026. Open
Island Bay Little Italy (Wellington). Italiese: Italian/English page. Open
Fuduli Sorrentino, Filomena (2015). L'italoamericano, la lingua creata dagli immigrati italiani in America. La Voce di New York, 27 February 2015. Open
Il Globo editorial team (c. 2020). Australitaliano: the unique language of the Italian community Down Under. Il Globo, Melbourne. Open
Rando, Gaetano (1968). Influenze dell'inglese sul lessico italo australiano di Sydney. Lingua Nostra 29: 17 to 22, as cited in it.wikipedia Lingua italiana in Australia. Open
Italy Segreta. Speaking Italiese in Canada (author and date not stated). Open
Rizza, Sebastiano (2021). Alcuni americanismi di Basilicata. U laccë (Pignola dialect site). Open
Haller, Hermann W. (2010). Italoamericano. In Enciclopedia dell'Italiano. Roma: Treccani. Open
Il Globo (Feb 2020). L'australitaliano, un linguaggio in equilibrio tra due mondi. In classe, pp. 4 to 5. Open
Wikipedia contributors. Siculish. Accessed 21 October 2026. Open
Un po' di pepe (Cristina) (2021). Italiese. Blog post, 21 Oct 2021. Open
Wikipedia contributors. Broccolino. Open
Fuduli Sorrentino, F. (2015). Interview with Michele Cecchini: Italiese, la nostra bella lingua d'America. La Voce di New York, 14 Dec 2015. Open
Serra, R. (2017). Intrecci linguistici. Lingue e dialetti italiani tra i giovani italoamericani nella grande area di New York. Forum Italicum 51(3). Open
ItalianGenealogy.com forum, thread Lingua nostra, 16 Aug 2024. Open
Spanish
The Spanglish dictionary, beta · 414 entries
Scholarship
Reyes Tosta 2019 Open
Smead 1998 Open
Smead 1998, English loanwords in Chicano Spanish Open
Moreno-Fernández 2017, Harvard Cervantes survey Open
Espinosa 1914 to 1915, Studies in New Mexican Spanish III Open
Pacchiarotti 2012 Open
Torres Torres 2010 (teaching glossary) Open
Lipski, Revista Española de Lingüística 33.2 Open
Morales 2008, Instituto Cervantes Anuario Open
Poplack and Sankoff 1984 Open
Varra 2019 Open
Juarros-Daussa 2012 Open
Dumitrescu, Revista de la ANLE Open
Torres Cacoullos and Aaron 2003 Open
Aaron 2014 Open
Fernández Marrero 2008, Australian Spanish press Open
Covarrubias et al. 2018, US Spanish in the Spotlight Open
Vergara Wilson 2015, citing Espinosa 1917 Open
Lara Bermejo 2026 Open
Otheguy 2019 Open
Morales 2004, Revista de Estudios Hispánicos (UPR) Open
Gandarillas 2022 (citing Otheguy and Stern) Open
Errico 2015 Open
Valíková 2002 Open
New Mexico Spanish English Bilingual corpus Open
García Caba 2022 Open
Oancea 2015 (citing Sánchez 2008) Open
Casielles-Suárez 2017 (citing Montes-Alcalá) Open
Puerto Rican Literature Project glossary Open
KUT / Texas Standard 2020 Open
OnCuba News 2017 Open
Juan of Words 2012 Open
Balam 2025 Open
Cortés et al. 2005, English Today Open
Poplack 1980 Open
Bernal Labrada 2018, ANLE Open
Poplack 1983 Open
DILO 6, Academia Puertorriqueña, 2012 Open
Morant and Westall 2017 Open
Universidad de Piura 2015 (citing DLE) Open
Calafate et al. 2024 Open
Reference works
Wikipedia, Llanito Open
Wikipedia, List of Puerto Rican slang Open
Hispanopedia, Llanito Open
Wikipedia, Spanglish Open
Wikipedia, New Mexican Spanish Open
Press and compilers
Sherwood Droz, Diccionario de anglicismos para Puerto Rico Open
López Iglesias 2024, El Patio Colorao Open
Miami New Times, Cubonics 101 Open
Worldcrunch 2015 (El Espectador) Open
Rivera, Anglicisms in Puerto Rico Open
Grimaldi Herrera 2009 (uncited, anecdotal) Open
Seattle Times 1997 (Bill Cruz, Cuban-Americanisms) Open
Valenzuela, El País (via todoele) Open
Cárdenas, Heinrich Böll Stiftung 2014 Open
San Diego Reader 2016 Open
Barry Popik, The Big Apple (citing 1944 press) Open
Menéndez, Cuban Americans and Miami English (FIU) Open
The Local 2015 (Tito Vallejo) Open
San Diego Reader 2008 Open
HPPR 2003 (Stavans interview) Open
Olive Press 2016 Open
NBC News 2014 (Stavans) Open
Pocho.com Open
Learning glossaries
Speaking Latino Open
YourDictionary Open
Culture Trip, Llanito Open
Rosetta Stone blog Open
StoryLearning 2022 Open
Something missing or wrong?
If you know a source we have missed, or a page we have cited wrongly, tell us. Corrections to sources are made on every entry that uses them.